AI Chat Paper
Note: Please note that the following content is generated by AMiner AI. SciOpen does not take any responsibility related to this content.
{{lang === 'zh_CN' ? '文章概述' : 'Summary'}}
{{lang === 'en_US' ? '中' : 'Eng'}}
Chat more with AI
Powered by AMiner. Clicking this button will take you away from SciOpen.
Home Building Simulation Article
PDF (2.8 MB)
Cite
EndNote(RIS) BibTeX
Collect
Submit Manuscript AI Chat Paper
Show Outline
Outline
Show full outline
Hide outline
Outline
Show full outline
Hide outline
Research Article | Open Access

Impact of thermal stratification on airborne transmission risk of SARS-CoV-2 in various indoor environments

Fan Liu1, Zhiwen Luo2( ), Hua Qian3
School of Environment and Architecture, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai, China
Welsh School of Architecture, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK
School of Energy and Environment, Southeast University, Nanjing, China
Show Author Information

Abstract

There exist various vertical temperature gradients in different-type buildings. A holistic understanding of the impact of different temperature-stratified indoor environments on infection risk is necessary. In this work, the airborne transmission risk of SARS-CoV-2 in different thermally stratified indoor environments is assessed using our previously developed airborne infection risk model. Results show that the vertical temperature gradients in office building, hospital, classroom, etc. are within the range of −0.34 to 3.26 ℃/m. In large space such as coach station, airport terminal, and sport hall, the average temperature gradient ranges within 0.13–2.38 ℃/m in occupied zone (0–3 m); in ice rink with special requirements of indoor environment, the temperature gradient is higher than those in the above indoor spaces. The existence of temperature gradients causes multi-peaks of the transmission risk of SARS-CoV-2 with distancing, and our results show that in office, hospital ward and classroom, the second peak of the transmission risk is higher than 10−3 in most contact scenarios, while most being lower than 10−6 in large spaces like coach station and airport. The work is expected to provide some guidance on specific intervention policies in relation to the types of indoor environments.

Keywords

temperature gradientSARS-CoV-2different-type buildingstransmission risk

Electronic Supplementary Material

Download File(s)
bs-16-7-1159_ESM.pdf (292.7 KB)

References

 
Adams WC (1993). Measurement of breathing rate and volume in routinely performed daily activities. Final Report. University of California, Davis.
 

Ai ZT, Melikov AK (2018). Airborne spread of expiratory droplet nuclei between the occupants of indoor environments: A review. Indoor Air, 28: 500–524.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Archer J, McCarthy LP, Symons HE, et al. (2022). Comparing aerosol number and mass exhalation rates from children and adults during breathing, speaking and singing. Interface Focus, 12: 20210078.
Crossref Google Scholar
 
ASHRAE (2009). ASHRAE Fundamentals. Atlanta, GA, USA: American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Engineers.
 

Atrubin D, Wiese M, Bohinc B (2020). An outbreak of COVID-19 associated with a recreational hockey game—Florida, June 2020. MMWR Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 69: 1492–1493.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Bax A, Bax CE, Stadnytskyi V, et al. (2021). SARS-CoV-2 transmission via speech-generated respiratory droplets. The Lancet Infectious Diseases, 21: 318.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Biguenet A, Bouiller K, Marty-Quinternet S, et al. (2021). SARS-CoV-2 respiratory viral loads and association with clinical and biological features. Journal of Medical Virology, 93: 1761–1765.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Bjørn E, Nielsen PV (2002). Dispersal of exhaled air and personal exposure in displacement ventilated rooms. Indoor Air, 12: 147–164.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Buchwald AG, Adams J, Bortz DM, et al. (2020). Infectious disease transmission models to predict, evaluate, and improve understanding of COVID-19 trajectory and interventions. Annals of the American Thoracic Society, 17: 1204–1206.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Buonanno G, Morawska L, Stabile L (2020a). Quantitative assessment of the risk of airborne transmission of SARS-CoV-2 infection: Prospective and retrospective applications. Environment International, 145: 106112.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Buonanno G, Stabile L, Morawska L (2020b). Estimation of airborne viral emission: Quanta emission rate of SARS-CoV-2 for infection risk assessment. Environment International, 141: 105794.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Chao CYH, Wan MP, Morawska L, et al. (2009). Characterization of expiration air jets and droplet size distributions immediately at the mouth opening. Journal of Aerosol Science, 40: 122–133.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Chen W, Zhang N, Wei J, et al. (2020). Short-range airborne route dominates exposure of respiratory infection during close contact. Building and Environment, 176: 106859.
Crossref Google Scholar
 
Cheng H, Jian S, Liu D, et al. (2020). High transmissibility of COVID-19 near symptom onset. medRxiv 2020.03.18.20034561.
Crossref
 

Chew MH, Koh FH, Wu JT, et al. (2020). Clinical assessment of COVID-19 outbreak among migrant workers residing in a large dormitory in Singapore. The Journal of Hospital Infection, 106: 202–203.
Crossref Google Scholar
 
Digitizer (2020). Getdata-Graph-Digitizer. Available at http://getdata-graph-digitizer.com/
 
Doung-Ngern P, Suphanchaimat R, Panjangampatthana A, et al. (2020). Associations between wearing masks, washing hands, and social distancing practices, and risk of COVID-19 infection in public: A cohort-based case-control study in Thailand. medRxiv 2020.06.11.20128900.
Crossref
 

Duguid JP (1946). The size and the duration of air-carriage of respiratory droplets and droplet-nuclei. The Journal of Hygiene, 44: 471–479.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Feng L, Zeng F, Li R, et al. (2021). Influence of manikin movement on temperature stratification in a displacement ventilated room. Energy and Buildings, 234: 110700.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Gao N, He Q, Niu J (2012). Numerical study of the lock-up phenomenon of human exhaled droplets under a displacement ventilated room. Building Simulation, 5: 51–60.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Ge J, Zhao Y, Zhao K (2021). Impact of a non-enclosed atrium on the surrounding thermal environment in shopping malls. Journal of Building Engineering, 35: 101981.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Gil-Lopez T, Galvez-Huerta MA, O’Donohoe PG, et al. (2017). Analysis of the influence of the return position in the vertical temperature gradient in displacement ventilation systems for large halls. Energy and Buildings, 140: 371–379.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Grassly NC, Fraser C (2008). Mathematical models of infectious disease transmission. Nature Reviews Microbiology, 6: 477–487.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Greenhalgh T, Jimenez JL, Prather KA, et al. (2021). Ten scientific reasons in support of airborne transmission of SARS-CoV-2. Lancet, 397(10285): 1603–1605.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Hu H, Wang H, Zou Z, et al. (2022). Investigation of inter-zonal heat transfer in large space buildings based on similarity: Comparison of two stratified air-conditioning systems. Energy and Buildings, 254: 111602.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Huan C, Wang FH, Lin Z, et al. (2016). An experimental investigation into stratum ventilation for the cooling of an office with asymmetrically distributed heat gains. Building and Environment, 110: 76–88.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Huang C, Zou Z, Li M, et al. (2007). Measurements of indoor thermal environment and energy analysis in a large space building in typical seasons. Building and Environment, 42: 1869–1877.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Huang J, Hao T, Liu X, et al. (2022). Airborne transmission of the Delta variant of SARS-CoV-2 in an auditorium. Building and Environment, 219: 109212.
Crossref Google Scholar
 
ISO (2005). ISO 7730-2005: Moderate thermal environments-determination of the PMV and PPD indices and specification of the conditions for thermal comfort. Geneva: International Standards Organization.
 

Jones NR, Qureshi ZU, Temple RJ, et al. (2020). Two metres or one: what is the evidence for physical distancing in covid-19? BMJ, 370: m3223.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Lestinen S, Koskela H, Jokisalo J, et al. (2016). The use of displacement and zoning ventilation in a multipurpose arena. International Journal of Ventilation, 15: 151–166.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Li R, Pei S, Chen B, et al. (2020a). Substantial undocumented infection facilitates the rapid dissemination of novel coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2). Science, 368(6490): 489–493.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Li Z, Zhang D, Li C (2020b). Experimental study on thermal response characteristics of indoor environment with modular radiant cooling system. Energies, 13: 5012.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Li Y, Qian H, Hang J, et al. (2021). Probable airborne transmission of SARS-CoV-2 in a poorly ventilated restaurant. Building and Environment, 196: 107788.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Limane A, Fellouah H, Galanis N (2017). Simulation of airflow with heat and mass transfer in an indoor swimming pool by OpenFOAM. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, 109: 862–878.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Lin YJP, Tsai TY (2014). An experimental study on a full-scale indoor thermal environment using an Under-Floor Air Distribution system. Energy and Buildings, 80: 321–330.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Lin W, Liu X, Zhang T, et al. (2022). Investigation of displacement and jet ventilation systems applied in an ice rink. Journal of Building Engineering, 50: 104179.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Liu F, Zhang C, Qian H, et al. (2019). Direct or indirect exposure of exhaled contaminants in stratified environments using an integral model of an expiratory jet. Indoor Air, 29: 591–603.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Liu F, Qian H, Luo Z, et al. (2020). A laboratory study of the expiratory airflow and particle dispersion in the stratified indoor environment. Building and Environment, 180: 106988.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Liu F, Qian H, Luo Z, et al. (2021a). The impact of indoor thermal stratification on the dispersion of human speech droplets. Indoor Air, 31: 369–382.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Liu F, Luo Z, Li Y, et al. (2021b). Revisiting physical distancing threshold in indoor environment using infection-risk-based modeling. Environment International, 153: 106542.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Liu F, Qian H (2022). Uncertainty analysis of facemasks in mitigating SARS-CoV-2 transmission. Environmental Pollution, 303: 119167.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Lu Y, Oladokun M, Lin Z (2020). Reducing the exposure risk in hospital wards by applying stratum ventilation system. Building and Environment, 183: 107204.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Melikov A, Pitchurov G, Naydenov K, et al. (2005). Field study on occupant comfort and the office thermal environment in rooms with displacement ventilation. Indoor Air, 15: 205–214.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Miller SL, Nazaroff WW, Jimenez JL, et al. (2021). Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 by inhalation of respiratory aerosol in the Skagit Valley Chorale superspreading event. Indoor Air, 31: 314–323.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Morawska L, Cao J (2020). Airborne transmission of SARS-CoV-2: The world should face the reality. Environment International, 139: 105730.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Nielsen PV, Olmedo I, de Adana MR, et al. (2012). Airborne cross-infection risk between two people standing in surroundings with a vertical temperature gradient. HVAC&R Research, 18: 552–561.
Google Scholar
 

Nielsen PV, Xu C (2022). Multiple airflow patterns in human microenvironment and the influence on short-distance airborne cross-infection—A review. Indoor and Built Environment, 31: 1161–1175.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Niemelä R, Koskela H, Engström K (2001). Stratification of welding fumes and grinding particles in a large factory hall equipped with displacement ventilation. The Annals of Occupational Hygiene, 45: 467–471.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Onyeaka H, Anumudu CK, Al-Sharify ZT, et al. (2021). COVID-19 pandemic: A review of the global lockdown and its far-reaching effects. Science Progress, 104: 368504211019854.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Oran DP, Topol EJ (2020). Prevalence of asymptomatic SARS-CoV-2 infection: A narrative review. Annals of Internal Medicine, 173: 362–367.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Ouzzane M, Zmeureanu R, Scott J, et al. (2006). Cooling load and environmental measurements in a Canadian indoor ice rink. ASHRAE Transactions, 112(2): 538–545.
Google Scholar
 

Palmowska A, Lipska B (2016). Experimental study and numerical prediction of thermal and humidity conditions in the ventilated ice rink arena. Building and Environment, 108: 171–182.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Pan Y, Zhang D, Yang P, et al. (2020). Viral load of SARS-CoV-2 in clinical samples. The Lancet Infectious Diseases, 20: 411–412.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Popov TA, Dunev S, Kralimarkova TZ, et al. (2007). Evaluation of a simple, potentially individual device for exhaled breath temperature measurement. Respiratory Medicine, 101: 2044–2050.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Qian H, Li Y, Nielsen PV, et al. (2006). Dispersion of exhaled droplet nuclei in a two-bed hospital ward with three different ventilation systems. Indoor Air, 16:111–128.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Qian H, Li Y, Nielsen PV, et al. (2008). Dispersion of exhalation pollutants in a two-bed hospital ward with a downward ventilation system. Building and Environment, 43: 344–354.
Crossref Google Scholar
 
Qureshi Z, Jones N, Temple R, et al. (2020). What is the evidence to support the 2-metre social distancing rule to reduce the Covid-19 transmission? Available at https://www.cebm.net/covid-19/what-is-the-evidence-to-support-the-2-metre-social-distancing-rule-to-reduce-covid-19-transmission/
 

Raftery P, Bauman F, Schiavon S, et al. (2015). Laboratory testing of a displacement ventilation diffuser for underfloor air distribution systems. Energy and Buildings, 108: 82–91.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Rothe C, Schunk M, Sothmann P, et al. (2020). Transmission of 2019-nCoV infection from an asymptomatic contact in Germany. New England Journal of Medicine, 382: 970–971.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Seduikyte L, Stasiulienė L, Prasauskas T, et al. (2019). Field Measurements and numerical simulation for the definition of the thermal stratification and ventilation performance in a mechanically ventilated sports hall. Energies, 12: 2243.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Seong M, Lim C, Lim J, et al. (2021). A study on the status and thermal environment improvement of ceiling-embedded indoor cooling and heating unit. Sustainability, 13: 10651.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Shi Z, Lu Z, Chen Q (2019). Indoor airflow and contaminant transport in a room with coupled displacement ventilation and passive-chilled-beam systems. Building and Environment, 161: 106244.
Crossref Google Scholar
 
Sormunen P, Sundman TL, Lestinen S. (2007). The design challenges of multipurpose arenas. In: Proceedings of Clima Well Being Indoors, Finland.
 

Stadnytskyi V, Bax CE, Bax A, et al. (2020). The airborne lifetime of small speech droplets and their potential importance in SARS-CoV-2 transmission. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 117: 11875–11877.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

To KK, Tsang OT, Leung WS, et al. (2020). Temporal profiles of viral load in posterior oropharyngeal saliva samples and serum antibody responses during infection by SARS-CoV-2: An observational cohort study. The Lancet Infectious Diseases, 20: 565–574.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Tong Y, Lin K, Hu Q, et al. (2020). Field measurements on thermal stratification and cooling potential of natural ventilation for large space buildings. International Journal of Ventilation, 19: 49–62.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Toomla S, Lestinen S, Kilpeläinen S, et al. (2019). Experimental investigation of air distribution and ventilation efficiency in an ice rink arena. International Journal of Ventilation, 18:187–203.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Ueki H, Furusawa Y, Iwatsuki-Horimoto K, et al. (2020). Effectiveness of face masks in preventing airborne transmission of SARS-CoV-2. mSphere, 5(5): e00637-20.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Wang X, Huang C, Cao W, et al. (2011). Experimental study on indoor thermal stratification in large space by under floor air distribution system (UFAD) in summer. Engineering, 3(4):384-388.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Wang Y, Zhao F, Kuckelkorn J, et al. (2014). Classroom energy efficiency and air environment with displacement natural ventilation in a passive public school building. Energy and Buildings, 70: 258–270.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Wang H, Zhou P, Guo C, et al. (2019). On the calculation of heat migration in thermally stratified environment of large space building with sidewall nozzle air-supply. Building and Environment, 147: 221–230.
Crossref Google Scholar
 
WHO (2011). Guidelines for Drinking-Water Quality, 4th Edition. WHO Regional Office for Europe.
 

Wu J, Dhingra R, Gambhir M, et al. (2013). Sensitivity analysis of infectious disease models: methods, advances and their application. Journal of the Royal Society, Interface, 10: 20121018.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Xie X, Li Y, Chwang AY, et al. (2007). How far droplets can move in indoor environments—Revisiting the Wells evaporation-falling curve. Indoor Air, 17: 211–225.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Yang X, Zhong K, Zhu H, et al. (2014). Experimental investigation on transient natural ventilation driven by thermal buoyancy. Building and Environment, 77: 29–39.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Yang C, Demokritou P, Chen Q, et al. (2000). Ventilation and air quality in indoor ice skating arenas. ASHRAE Transactions, 106(2): 338–346.
Google Scholar
 

Yang X, Wang H, Su C, et al. (2020). Heat transfer between occupied and unoccupied zone in large space building with floor-level side wall air-supply system. Building Simulation, 13(6): 1221–1233.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Yin Y, Xu W, Gupta J, et al. (2009). Experimental study on displacement and mixing ventilation systems for a patient ward. HVAC & R Research, 15: 1175-1191.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Zhao K, Weng J, Ge J (2020). On-site measured indoor thermal environment in large spaces of airports during winter. Building and Environment, 167: 106463.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Zhao Y, Huang J, Zhang L, etal. (2022). Is the Omicron variant of SARS-CoV-2 coming to an end? The Innovation, 3: 100240.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Zhou Q, Qian H, Ren H, et al. (2017). The lock-up phenomenon of exhaled flow in a stable thermally-stratified indoor environment. Building and Environment, 116: 246–256.
Crossref Google Scholar
Building Simulation
Volume 16 Issue 7,
July 2023
Pages 1159-1172
DOI: 10.1007/s12273-023-1021-5
Cite this article:
Liu F, Luo Z, Qian H. Impact of thermal stratification on airborne transmission risk of SARS-CoV-2 in various indoor environments. Building Simulation, 2023, 16(7): 1159-1172. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12273-023-1021-5

500

Views

16

Downloads

3

Crossref

3

Web of Science

3

Scopus

0

CSCD

Altmetrics
Received: 26 December 2022
Revised: 08 March 2023
Accepted: 22 March 2023
Published: 09 May 2023
© The Author(s) 2023

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made.

The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder.

To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
Return