AI Chat Paper
Note: Please note that the following content is generated by AMiner AI. SciOpen does not take any responsibility related to this content.
{{lang === 'zh_CN' ? '文章概述' : 'Summary'}}
{{lang === 'en_US' ? '中' : 'Eng'}}
Chat more with AI
Powered by AMiner. Clicking this button will take you away from SciOpen.
Home Avian Research Article
PDF (2.8 MB)
Cite
EndNote(RIS) BibTeX
Collect
Submit Manuscript AI Chat Paper
Show Outline
Outline
Show full outline
Hide outline
Outline
Show full outline
Hide outline
Research Article | Open Access

Short-term night lighting disrupts lipid and glucose metabolism in Zebra Finches: Implication for urban stopover birds

Na Zhua,b,1, Jing Shanga,b,1, Shuping Zhanga,b( )
Key Laboratory of Ecology and Environment in Minority Areas (National Ethnic Affairs Commission), Minzu University of China, Beijing 100081, China
College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Minzu University of China, Beijing 100081, China

1 The authors contributed equally to this work.

Show Author Information

Abstract

Night lighting has been shown to affect wild animals. To date, the effects of night lighting on the metabolic homeostasis of birds that spend short time in urban environments remain unclear. Using model bird species Zebra Finch (Taeniopygia guttata), we investigated the effects of short-term night lighting on liver transcriptome, blood glucose, triglyceride, and thyroxine (T4 and T3) levels in birds exposed to two different night lighting duration periods (three days and six days). After three days of night lighting exposure, the expression of genes involved in fat synthesis in the liver was upregulated while the expression of genes involved in fatty acid oxidation and triglyceride decomposition was downregulated. There was also a reduction in blood triglyceride, glucose, and T3 concentrations. However, after six days of night lighting, the expression of genes associated with fatty acid decomposition and hyperglycemia in the liver was upregulated, while the expression of genes involved in fat synthesis was downregulated. Simultaneously, blood glucose levels and T3 concentration increased. These findings indicate that short-term exposure to night lighting can disrupt the lipid and glucose metabolism of small passerine birds, and longer stopovers in urban area with intense night lighting may cause birds to consume more lipid energy.

Keywords

LipidMetabolismGlucoseBirdsNight lightingShort-term

References

 

Alaasam, V.J., Duncan, R., Casagrande, S., Davies, S., Sidher, A., Seymoure, B., et al., 2018. Light at night disrupts nocturnal rest and elevates glucocorticoids at cool color temperatures. J. Exp. Zool. A Ecol. Integr. Physiol. 329, 465–472.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Alaasam, V.J., Liu, X., Niu, Y., Habibian, J.S., Pieraut, S., Ferguson, B.S., et al., 2021. Effects of dim artificial light at night on locomotor activity, cardiovascular physiology, and circadian clock genes in a diurnal songbird. Environ. Pollut. 282, 117036.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Aulsebrook, A.E., Connelly, F., Johnsson, R.D., Jones, T.M., Mulder, R.A., Hall, M.L., et al., 2020. White and amber light at night disrupt sleep physiology in birds. Curr. Biol. 30, 3657–3663.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Bairlein, F., Fritz, J., Scope, A., Schwendenwein, I., Stanclova, G., van Dijk, G., et al., 2015. Energy expenditure and metabolic changes of free-flying migrating Northern bald ibis. PLoS One 10, e0134433.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Bell-Pedersen, D., Cassone, V.M., Earnest, D.J., Golden, S.S., Hardin, P.E., Thomas, T.L., et al., 2005. Circadian rhythms from multiple oscillators: lessons from diverse organisms. Nat. Rev. Genet. 6, 544–556.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Brockmöller, S.F., Bucher, E., Müller, B.M., Budczies, J., Hilvo, M., Griffin, J.L., et al., 2012. Integration of metabolomics and expression of glycerol-3-phosphate acyltransferase (GPAM) in breast cancer-link to patient survival, hormone receptor status, and metabolic profiling. J. Proteome Res. 11, 850–860.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Brown, S.A., Kunz, D., Dumas, A., Westermark, P.O., Vanselow, K., Tilmann-Wahnschaffe, A., et al., 2008. Molecular insights into human daily behavior. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 105, 1602–1607.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Bumgarner, J.R., Nelson, R.J., 2021. Light at night and disrupted circadian rhythms alter physiology and behavior. Integr. Comp. Biol. 61, 1160–1169.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Cailotto, C., van Heijningen, C., van der Vliet, J., van der Plasse, G., Habold, C., Kalsbeek, A., et al., 2008. Daily rhythms in metabolic liver enzymes and plasma glucose require a balance in the autonomic output to the liver. Endocrinology 149, 1914–1925.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Cao, J., Li, J.L., Li, D., Tobin, J.F., Gimeno, R.E., 2006. Molecular identification of microsomal acyl-CoA: glycerol-3-phosphate acyltransferase, a key enzyme in de novo triacylglycerol synthesis. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 103, 19695–19700.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Chan, C.W., Chan, M.W., Liu, M., Fung, L., Cole, E.H., Leibowitz, J.L., et al., 2002. Kinetic analysis of a unique direct prothrombinase, fgl2, and identification of a serine residue critical for the prothrombinase activity. J. Immunol. 168, 5170–5177.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Chastel, O., Andre, L., Kersten, M., 2003. Prebreeding energy requirements: thyroid hormone, metabolism and the timing of reproduction in House sparrow Passer domesticus. J. Avian Biol. 34, 298–306.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Chen, Y.Q., Kuo, M.S., Li, S., Bui, H.H., Peake, D.A., Sanders, P.E., et al., 2008. AGPAT6 is a novel microsomal glycerol-3-phosphate acyltransferase. J. Biol. Chem. 283, 10048–10057.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Cohen, E.B., Lafleur, J.M., Moore, F.R., 2022. Density dependent refueling of migratory songbirds during stopover within an urbanizing coastal landscape. Front. Ecol. Evol. 10, 837790.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Coomans, C.P., van den Berg, S.A., Houben, T., van Klinken, J.B., van den Berg, R., Pronk, A.C., Meijer, J.H., 2013. Detrimental effects of constant light exposure and high-fat diet on circadian energy metabolism and insulin sensitivity. Faseb. J. 27, 1721–1732.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Cooper, L.N., Mishra, I., Ashley, N.T., 2019. Short-term sleep loss alters cytokine gene expression in brain and peripheral tissues and increases plasma corticosterone of Zebra Finch (Taeniopygia guttata). Physiol. Biochem. Zool. 92, 80–91.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Dominoni, D.M., Goymann, W., Helm, B., Partecke, J., 2013. Urban-like night illumination reduces melatonin release in European blackbirds (Turdus merula): implications of city life for biological time-keeping of songbirds. Front. Zool. 10, 60.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Eales, J.G., 1988. The influence of nutritional state on thyroid function in various vertebrates. Am. Zool. 28, 351–362.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Falchi, F., Cinzano, P., Duriscoe, D., Kyba, C.C., Elvidge, C.D., Baugh, K., et al., 2016. The new world atlas of artificial night sky brightness. Sci. Adv. 2, e1600377.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Fonken, L.K., Nelson, R.J., 2014. The effects of light at night on circadian clocks and metabolism. Endocr. Rev. 35, 648–670.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Fonken, L.K., Workman, J.L., Walton, J.C., Weil, Z.M., Morris, J.S., Haim, A., et al., 2010. Light at night increases body mass by shifting the time of food intake. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 107, 18664–18669.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Grimaldi, B., Bellet, M.M., Katada, S., Astarita, G., Hirayama, J., Amin, R.H., et al., 2010. PER2 controls lipid metabolism by direct regulation of PPARγ. Cell Metabol. 12, 509–520.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Hölker, F., Moss, T., Griefahn, B., Kloas, W., Voigt, C.C., Henckel, D., et al., 2010. The dark side of light: a transdisciplinary research agenda for light pollution policy. Ecol. Soc. 15, 13.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Horton, K.G., Nilsson, C., Doren, B.M.V., Sorte, F.A.L., Dokter, A.M., Farnsworth, A., 2019. Bright lights in the big cities: migratory birds’ exposure to artificial light. Front. Ecol. Environ. 17, 209–214.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Jesko, P., Van’t Hof, T.J., Eberhard, G., 2005. Underlying physiological control of reproduction in urban and forest-dwelling European blackbirds Turdus merula. J. Avian Biol. 36, 295–305.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Johnson, B.P., Walisser, J.A., Liu, Y., Shen, A.L., McDearmon, E.L., Moran, S.M., et al., 2014. Hepatocyte circadian clock controls acetaminophen bioactivation through NADPH-cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 111, 18757–18762.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Kupprat, F., Kloas, W., Krüger, A., Schmalsch, C., Hölker, F., 2021. Misbalance of thyroid hormones after two weeks of exposure to artificial light at night in Eurasian perch Perca fluviatilis. Conserv. Physiol. 9, coaa124.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

La Sorte, F.A., Fink, D., Buler, J.J., Farnsworth, A., Cabrera-Cruz, S.A., 2017. Seasonal associations with urban light pollution for nocturnally migrating bird populations. Global Change Biol. 23, 4609–4619.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Lamia, K.A., Storch, K.F., Weitz, C.J., 2008. Physiological significance of a peripheral tissue circadian clock. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 105, 15172–15177.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Lamia, K.A., Papp, S.J., Yu, R.T., Barish, G.D., Uhlenhaut, N.H., Jonker, J.W., et al., 2011. Cryptochromes mediate rhythmic repression of the glucocorticoid receptor. Nature 480, 552–556.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Liu, Y.Y., Brent, G.A., 2010. Thyroid hormone crosstalk with nuclear receptor signaling in metabolic regulation. Trends Endocrinol. Metabol. 21, 166–173.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Luarte, T., Bonta, C.C., Silva-Rodriguez, E.A., Quijón, P.A., Miranda, C., Farias, A.A., et al., 2016. Light pollution reduces activity, food consumption and growth rates in a sandy beach invertebrate. Environ. Pollut. 218, 1147–1153.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Lynn, K.D., Quintanilla-Ahumada, D., Anguita, C., Widdicombe, S., Pulgar, J., Manríquez, P.H., et al., 2021. Artificial light at night alters the activity and feeding behaviour of sandy beach amphipods and pose a threat to their ecological role in Atlantic Canada. Sci. Total Environ. 780, 146568.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Magnusson, I., Rothman, D.L., Jucker, B., Cline, G.W., Shulman, R.G., Shulman, G.I., 1994. Liver glycogen turnover in fed and fasted humans. Am. J. Physiol. 266, E796–E803.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Malek, I., Haim, A., 2019. Bright artificial light at night is associated with increased body mass, poor reproductive success and compromised disease tolerance in Australian budgerigars (Melopsittacus undulatus). Integr. Zool. 14, 589–603.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Martin, N.H., Neuberger, A., 1957. Protein metabolism and the liver. Br. Med. Bull. 13, 113–118.
Crossref Google Scholar
 
Marzluff, J.M., 2001. Worldwide urbanization and its effects on birds. In: Marzluff, J.M., Bowman, R., Donnelly, R. (Eds.), Avian Ecology and Conservation in an Urbanizing World. Springer, Boston, pp. 19–47.
Crossref
 

Masís-Vargas, A., Ritsema, W.I.G.R., Mendoza, J., Kalsbeek, A., 2020. Metabolic effects of light at night are time- and wavelength-dependent in rats. Obesity 28, S114–S125.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

McLaren, J.D., Buler, J.J., Schreckengost, T., Smolinsky, J.A., Boone, M., van Loon, E.E., et al., 2018. Artificial light at night confounds broad-scale habitat use by migrating birds. Ecol. Lett. 21, 356–364.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Mensenkamp, A.R., Havekes, L.M., Romijn, J.A., Kuipers, F., 2001. Hepatic steatosis and very low density lipoprotein secretion: the involvement of apolipoprotein. E. J. Hepatol. 35, 816–822.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Moaraf, S., Vistoropsky, Y., Pozner, T., Heiblum, R., Okuliarová, M., Zeman, M., et al., 2020. Artificial light at night affects brain plasticity and melatonin in birds. Neurosci. Lett. 716, 134639.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Nagai, N., Ayaki, M., Yanagawa, T., Hattori, A., Negishi, K., Mori, T., et al., 2019. Suppression of blue light at night ameliorates metabolic abnormalities by controlling circadian rhythms. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 60, 3786–3793.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Nassar, M., Halle, I., Plagemann, A., Tzschentke, B., 2015. Detection of long-term influence of prenatal temperature stimulation on hypothalamic type-Ⅱ iodothyronine deiodinase in juvenile female broiler chickens using a novel immunohistochemical amplification protocol. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. Mol. Integr. Physiol. 179, 120–124.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Navara, K.J., Nelson, R.J., 2007. The dark side of light at night: physiological, epidemiological, and ecological consequences. J. Pineal Res. 43, 215–224.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Okuliarova, M., Rumanova, V.S., Stebelova, K., Zeman, M., 2020. Dim Light at Night Disturbs Molecular Pathways of Lipid Metabolism. Mol. Sci. 21, E6919.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Opperhuizen, A.L., Stenvers, D.J., Jansen, R.D., Foppen, E., Fliers, E., Kalsbeek, A., 2017. Light at night acutely impairs glucose tolerance in a time-, intensity- and wavelength-dependent manner in rats. Diabetologia 60, 1333–1343.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Ouyang, J.Q., de Jong, M., Hau, M., Visser, M.E., van Grunsven, R.H., Spoelstra, K., 2015. Stressful colours: corticosterone concentrations in a free-living songbird vary with the spectral composition of experimental illumination. Biol. Lett. 11, 20150517.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Ouyang, J.Q., de Jong, M., van Grunsven, R.H.A., Matson, K.D., Haussmann, M.F., Meerlo, P., et al., 2017. Restless roosts: Light pollution affects behavior, sleep, and physiology in a free-living songbird. Global Change Biol. 23, 4987–4994.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Pérez, J. H., Meddle, S. L., Wingfield, J. C., et al., 2018. Effects of thyroid hormone manipulation on pre-nuptial molt, luteinizing hormone and testicular growth in male white-crowned sparrows (Zonotrichia leuchophrys gambelii). Gen. Comp. Endocr. 255, 12–18.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Pucci, E., Chiovato, L., Pinchera, A., 2000. Thyroid and lipid metabolism. Int. J. Obes. 24, S109–S112.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Raap, T., Pinxten, R., Eens, M., 2016. Artificial light at night disrupts sleep in female great tits (Parus major) during the nestling period, and is followed by a sleep rebound. Environ. Pollut. 215, 125–134.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Raap, T., Thys, B., Grunst, A.S., Grunst, M.L., Pinxten, R., Eens, M., 2018. Personality and artificial light at night in a semi-urban songbird population: No evidence for personality-dependent sampling bias, avoidance or disruptive effects on sleep behaviour. Environ. Pollut. 243, 1317–1324.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Rumanova, V.S., Okuliarova, M., Molcan, L., Sutovska, H., Zeman, M., 2019. Consequences of low-intensity light at night on cardiovascular and metabolic parameters in spontaneously hypertensive rats. Can. J. Physiol. Pharmacol. 97, 863–871.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Russ, A., Rüger, A., Klenke, R., 2015. Seize the night: European Blackbirds (Turdus merula) extend their foraging activity under artificial illumination. J. Ornithol. 156, 123–131.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Salem, M., Silverstein, J., Rexroad, C.E., 2007. Effect of starvation on global gene expression and proteolysis in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). Genomics 8, 328.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Sando, K.R., Knight, M., 2015. Nonstatin therapies for management of dyslipidemia: a review. Clin. Therapeut. 37, 2153–2179.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Seewagen, C.L., Slayton, E.J., Guglielmo, C.G., 2010. Passerine migrant stopover duration and spatial behaviour at an urban stopover site. Acta Oecol. 36, 484–492.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Seewagen, C.L., Sheppard, C.D., Slayton, E.J., 2011. Plasma metabolites and mass changes of migratory landbirds indicate adequate stopover refueling in a heavily urbanized landscape. Condor 113, 284–297.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Singh, J., Rani, S., Kumar, V., 2012. Functional similarity in relation to the external environment between circadian behavioral and melatonin rhythms in the subtropical Indian weaver bird. Horm. Behav. 61, 527–534.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Taufique, S.K.T., Prabhat, A., Kumar, V., 2018. Illuminated night alters hippocampal gene expressions and induces depressive-like responses in diurnal corvids. Eur. J. Neurosci. 48, 3005–3018.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Ursino, G., Coppari, R., 2020. Insulin under the influence of light. Swiss Med. Wkly. 150, w20273.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Van Doren, B.M., Horton, K.G., Dokter, A.M., Klinck, H., Elbin, S.B., Farnsworth, A., 2017. High-intensity urban light installation dramatically alters nocturnal bird migration. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 114, 11175–11180.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Villena, J.A., Roy, S., Sarkadi-Nagy, E., Kim, K.H., Sul, H.S., 2004. Desnutrin, an adipocyte gene encoding a novel patatin domain-containing protein, is induced by fasting and glucocorticoids: ectopic expression of desnutrin increases triglyceride hydrolysis. J. Biol. Chem. 279, 47066–47075.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Vinogradova, I.A., Anisimov, V.N., Bukalev, A.V., Ilyukha, V.A., Khizhkin, E.A., Lotosh, T.A., et al., 2009. Circadian disruption induced by light-at-night accelerates aging and promotes tumorigenesis in rats. Aging 1, 855–865.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Vollmers, C., Gill, S., DiTacchio, L., Pulivarthy, S.R., Le, H.D., Panda, S., 2009. Time of feeding and the intrinsic circadian clock drive rhythms in hepatic gene expression. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 106, 21453–21458.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Wang, Y., Zhang, Y., Qian, H., Lu, J., Zhang, Z., Min, X., et al., 2013. The g0/g1 switch gene 2 is an important regulator of hepatic triglyceride metabolism. PLoS One 8, e72315.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Wang, Y., Campbell, J.B., Kaftanoglu, O., Page, R.E., Amdam Jr., G.V., Harrison, J.F., 2016. Larval starvation improves metabolic response to adult starvation in honey bees (Apis mellifera L.). J. Exp. Biol. 219, 960–968.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Watson, H., Videvall, E., Andersson, M.N., Isaksson, C., 2017. Transcriptome analysis of a wild bird reveals physiological responses to the urban environment. Sci. Rep. 7, 44180.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Weinstock, P.H., Bisgaier, C.L., Aalto-Setälä, K., Radner, H., Ramakrishnan, R., Levak-Frank, S., et al., 1995. Severe hypertriglyceridemia, reduced high density lipoprotein, and neonatal death in lipoprotein lipase knockout mice. Mild hypertriglyceridemia with impaired very low density lipoprotein clearance in heterozygotes. J. Clin. Invest. 96, 2555–2568.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Williams, G.R., Bassett, J.H., 2011. Deiodinases: the balance of thyroid hormone: local control of thyroid hormone action: role of type 2 deiodinase. J. Endocrinol. 209, 261–272.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Yang, X., Lu, X., Lombès, M., Rha, G.B., Chi, Y-I., Guerin, T.M., et al., 2010. The G0/G1 switch gene 2 regulates adipose lipolysis through association with adipose triglyceride lipase. Cell Metabol. 11, 194–205.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Yen, P.M., 2001. Physiological and molecular basis of thyroid hormone action. Physiol. Rev. 81, 1097–1142.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Zhang, X., Heckmann, B.L., Campbell, L.E., Liu, J., 2017b. G0S2: A small giant controller of lipolysis and adipose-liver fatty acid flux. BBA-Mol. Cell Biol. L. 1862, 1146–1154.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Zhang, E.E., Liu, Y., Dentin, R., Pongsawakul, P.Y., Liu, A.C., Hirota, T., et al., 2010. Cryptochrome mediates circadian regulation of cAMP signaling and hepatic gluconeogenesis. Nat. Med. 16, 1152–1156.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Zhang, X., Xie, X., Heckmann, B.L., Saarinen, A.M., Czyzyk, T.A., Liu, J., 2014b. Targeted disruption of G0/G1 switch gene 2 enhances adipose lipolysis, alters hepatic energy balance, and alleviates high-fat diet-induced liver steatosis. Diabetes 63, 934–946.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Zhang, S., Chen, X., Zhang, J., Li, H., 2014a. Differences in the reproductive hormone rhythm of tree sparrows (Passer montanus) from urban and rural sites in Beijing: the effect of anthropogenic light sources. Gen. Comp. Endocrinol. 206, 24–29.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Zhang, S., Xu, X., Wang, W., Zhao, L., Gao, L., Yang, W., 2017a. Annual variation in the reproductive hormone and behavior rhythm in a population of the Asian short-toed lark: can spring temperature influence activation of the HPG axis of wild birds? Horm. Behav. 95, 76–84.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Ziegler, A.K., Watson, H., Hegemann, A., Meitern, R., Canoine, V., Nilsson, J., et al., 2021. Exposure to artificial light at night alters innate immune response in wild great tit nestlings. J. Exp. Biol. 224 jeb239350.
Crossref Google Scholar
 

Zimmermann, R., Strauss, J.G., Haemmerle, G., Schoiswohl, G., Birner-Gruenberger, R., Riederer, M., et al., 2004. Fat mobilization in adipose tissue is promoted by adipose triglyceride lipase. Science 306, 1383–1386.
Crossref Google Scholar
Avian Research
Volume 14 Issue 4,
December 2023
Article number: 100138
DOI: 10.1016/j.avrs.2023.100138
Cite this article:
Zhu N, Shang J, Zhang S. Short-term night lighting disrupts lipid and glucose metabolism in Zebra Finches: Implication for urban stopover birds. Avian Research, 2023, 14(4): 100138. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avrs.2023.100138

173

Views

6

Downloads

0

Crossref

0

Web of Science

0

Scopus

0

CSCD

Altmetrics
Received: 23 February 2023
Revised: 22 August 2023
Accepted: 21 September 2023
Published: 12 October 2023
© 2023 The Authors.

This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Return