Device design principles and bioelectronic applications for flexible organic electrochemical transistors

White H S, Kittlesen G P and Wrighton M S 1984 Chemical derivatization of an array of three gold microelectrodes with polypyrrole: fabrication of a molecule-based transistor J. Am. Chem. Soc. 106 5375–7

Tan S T M, Keene S, Giovannitti A, Melianas A, Moser M, McCulloch I and Salleo A 2021 Operation mechanism of organic electrochemical transistors as redox chemical transducers J. Mater. Chem. C 9 12148–58

Rivnay J, Inal S, Salleo A, Owens R M, Berggren M and Malliaras G G 2018 Organic electrochemical transistors Nat. Rev. Mater. 3 17086

Cucchi M, Weissbach A, Bongartz L M, Kantelberg R, Tseng H, Kleemann H and Leo K 2022 Thermodynamics of organic electrochemical transistors Nat. Commun. 13 4514

Friedlein J T, McLeod R R and Rivnay J 2018 Device physics of organic electrochemical transistors Org. Electron. 63 398–414

Zeglio E and Inganäs O 2018 Active materials for organic electrochemical transistors Adv. Mater. 30 1800941

Li P Y and Lei T 2022 Molecular design strategies for high-performance organic electrochemical transistors J. Polym. Sci. 60 377–92

Feng K et al 2021 Fused bithiophene imide dimer-based n-type polymers for high-performance organic electrochemical transistors Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. 60 24198–205

Tan S T M, Giovannitti A, Melianas A, Moser M, Cotts B L, Singh D, McCulloch I and Salleo A 2021 High-gain chemically gated organic electrochemical transistor Adv. Funct. Mater. 31 2010868

Paudel P R, Tropp J, Kaphle V, Azoulay J D and Lüssem B 2021 Organic electrochemical transistors–from device models to a targeted design of materials J. Mater. Chem. C 9 9761–90

Huang W, Chen J H, Wang G, Yao Y, Zhuang X M, Pankow R M, Cheng Y H, Marks T J and Facchetti A 2021 Dielectric materials for electrolyte gated transistor applications J. Mater. Chem. C 9 9348–76

Sun H D, Gerasimov J, Berggren M and Fabiano S 2018 n-Type organic electrochemical transistors: materials and challenges J. Mater. Chem. C 6 11778–84

Xie M, Liu H F, Wu M G, Chen C, Wen J J, Bai L B, Yu J S and Huang W 2023 Cycling stability of organic electrochemical transistors Org. Electron. 117 106777

Huang W et al 2023 Vertical organic electrochemical transistors for complementary circuits Nature 613 496–502

Peng Y J, Gao L, Liu C J, Deng J Y, Xie M, Bai L B, Wang G, Cheng Y H, Huang W and Yu J S 2023 Stretchable organic electrochemical transistors via three-dimensional porous elastic semiconducting films for artificial synaptic applications Nano Res. 16 10206–14

Liu C J, Deng J Y, Gao L, Cheng J L, Peng Y J, Zeng H J, Huang W, Feng L W and Yu J S 2023 Multilayer porous polymer films for high-performance stretchable organic electrochemical transistors Adv. Electron. Mater. 9 2300119

Gao L, Liu C J, Peng Y J, Deng J Y, Hou S H, Cheng Y H, Huang W and Yu J S 2022 Ultrasensitive flexible NO₂ gas sensors via multilayer porous polymer film Sens. Actuators B 368 132113

Torricelli F et al 2021 Electrolyte-gated transistors for enhanced performance bioelectronics Nat. Rev. Methods Primers 1 66

Bai L M, Elósegui C G, Li W Q, Yu P, Fei J J and Mao L Q 2019 Biological applications of organic electrochemical transistors: electrochemical biosensors and electrophysiology recording Front. Chem. 7 313

Yao Y, Huang W, Chen J H, Liu X X, Bai L B, Chen W, Cheng Y H, Ping J F, Marks T J and Facchetti A 2023 Flexible and stretchable organic electrochemical transistors for physiological sensing devices Adv. Mater. 35 2209906

Yang A N, Li Y Z, Yang C X, Fu Y, Wang N X, Li L and Yan F 2018 Fabric organic electrochemical transistors for biosensors Adv. Mater. 30 1800051

Fu Y, Wang N X, Yang A N, Law H K W, Li L and Yan F 2017 Highly sensitive detection of protein biomarkers with organic electrochemical transistors Adv. Mater. 29 1703787

Guo X, Liu J, Liu F Y, She F, Zheng Q, Tang H, Ma M and Yao S Z 2017 Label-free and sensitive sialic acid biosensor based on organic electrochemical transistors Sens. Actuators B 240 1075–82

Ling H F, Koutsouras D A, Kazemzadeh S, van de Burgt Y, Yan F and Gkoupidenis P 2020 Electrolyte-gated transistors for synaptic electronics, neuromorphic computing, and adaptable biointerfacing Appl. Phys. Rev. 7 011307

Dai S L et al 2022 Intrinsically stretchable neuromorphic devices for on-body processing of health data with artificial intelligence Matter 5 3375–90

Lee S K, Cho Y W, Lee J S, Jung Y R, Oh S H, Sun J Y, Kim S B and Joo Y C 2021 Nanofiber channel organic electrochemical transistors for low-power neuromorphic computing and wide-bandwidth sensing platforms Adv. Sci. 8 2001544

Ji X D, Paulsen B D, Chik G K K, Wu R H, Yin Y Y, Chan P K L and Rivnay J 2021 Mimicking associative learning using an ion-trapping non-volatile synaptic organic electrochemical transistor Nat. Commun. 12 2480

Cucchi M et al 2021 Reservoir computing with biocompatible organic electrochemical networks for brain-inspired biosignal classification Sci. Adv. 7 eabh0693

Gkoupidenis P, Schaefer N, Garlan B and Malliaras G G 2015 Neuromorphic functions in PEDOT:PSS organic electrochemical transistors Adv. Mater. 27 7176–80

Gkoupidenis P, Schaefer N, Strakosas X, Fairfield J A and Malliaras G G 2015 Synaptic plasticity functions in an organic electrochemical transistor Appl. Phys. Lett. 107 263302

Rashid R B, Ji X D and Rivnay J 2021 Organic electrochemical transistors in bioelectronic circuits Biosens. Bioelectron. 190 113461

Ersman P A, Lassnig R, Strandberg J, Tu D Y, Keshmiri V, Forchheimer R, Fabiano S, Gustafsson G and Berggren M 2019 All-printed large-scale integrated circuits based on organic electrochemical transistors Nat. Commun. 10 5053

Yao Y, Huang W, Chen J H, Wang G, Chen H M, Zhuang X M, Ying Y B, Ping J F, Marks T J and Facchetti A 2021 Flexible complementary circuits operating at sub-0.5 V via hybrid organic–inorganic electrolyte-gated transistors Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 118 e2111790118

Sun H D, Vagin M, Wang S H, Crispin X, Forchheimer R, Berggren M and Fabiano S 2018 Complementary logic circuits based on high-performance n-type organic electrochemical transistors Adv. Mater. 30 1704916

Bai J, Liu D Y, Tian X Y and Zhang S M 2022 Tissue-like organic electrochemical transistors J. Mater. Chem. C 10 13303–11

Khodagholy D et al 2013 High transconductance organic electrochemical transistors Nat. Commun. 4 2133

Lee W, Kim D, Matsuhisa N, Nagase M, Sekino M, Malliaras G G, Yokota T and Someya T 2017 Transparent, conformable, active multielectrode array using organic electrochemical transistors Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 114 10554–9

Wu M G et al 2023 Ultrathin, soft, bioresorbable organic electrochemical transistors for transient spatiotemporal mapping of brain activity Adv. Sci. 10 2370087

Feng J Y et al 2023 All-polymer fiber organic electrochemical transistor for chronic chemical detection in the brain Adv. Funct. Mater. 33 2214945

Guo X J et al 2017 Current status and opportunities of organic thin-film transistor technologies IEEE Trans. Electron Dev. 64 1906–21

Lanzani G 2014 Materials for bioelectronics: organic electronics meets biology Nat. Mater. 13 775–6

Wang N X, Yang A N, Fu Y, Li Y Z and Yan F 2019 Functionalized organic thin film transistors for biosensing Acc. Chem. Res. 52 277–87

Pappa A M, Parlak O, Scheiblin G, Mailley P, Salleo A and Owens R M 2018 Organic electronics for point-of-care metabolite monitoring Trends Biotechnol. 36 45–59

Sekretaryova A N, Eriksson M and Turner A P F 2016 Bioelectrocatalytic systems for health applications Biotechnol. Adv. 34 177–97

Griggs S, Marks A, Bristow H and McCulloch I 2021 n-type organic semiconducting polymers: stability limitations, design considerations and applications J. Mater. Chem. C 9 8099–128

Ohayon D, Druet V and Inal S 2023 A guide for the characterization of organic electrochemical transistors and channel materials Chem. Soc. Rev. 52 1001–23

Marks A, Griggs S, Gasparini N and Moser M 2022 Organic electrochemical transistors: an emerging technology for biosensing Adv. Mater. Interfaces 9 2102039

Li Y, Cui B B, Zhang S M, Li B X, Li J M, Liu S J and Zhao Q 2022 Ion-selective organic electrochemical transistors: recent progress and challenges Small 18 2107413

Wang L, Yue X P, Sun Q Z, Zhang L R, Ren G Z, Lu G, Yu H D and Huang W 2022 Flexible organic electrochemical transistors for chemical and biological sensing Nano Res. 15 2433–64

Wang G R, Hou H Y, Yan Y F, Jagatramka R, Shirsalimian A, Wang Y F, Li B Z, Daly M and Cao C H 2023 Recent advances in the mechanics of 2D materials Int. J. Extrem. Manuf. 5 032002

Gentile F, Vurro F, Janni M, Manfredi R, Cellini F, Petrozza A, Zappettini A and Coppedè N 2022 A biomimetic, biocompatible OECT sensor for the real-time measurement of concentration and saturation of ions in plant sap Adv. Electron. Mater. 8 2200092

Li T et al 2022 Biocompatible ionic liquids in high-performing organic electrochemical transistors for ion detection and electrophysiological monitoring ACS Nano 16 12049–60

Yang A N, Song J J, Liu H, Zhao Z Y, Li L and Yan F 2023 Wearable organic electrochemical transistor array for skin-surface electrocardiogram mapping above a human heart Adv. Funct. Mater. 33 2215037

Keene S T, Fogarty D, Cooke R, Casadevall C D, Salleo A and Parlak O 2019 Wearable organic electrochemical transistor patch for multiplexed sensing of calcium and ammonium ions from human perspiration Adv. Healthcare Mater. 8 1901321

Gu X, Yao C L, Liu Y and Hsing I M 2016 16-channel organic electrochemical transistor array for in vitro conduction mapping of cardiac action potential Adv. Healthcare Mater. 5 2345–51

Han S, Yamamoto S, Polyravas A G and Malliaras G G 2020 Microfabricated ion-selective transistors with fast and super-nernstian response Adv. Mater. 32 2004790

Lan L Y, Chen J X, Wang Y Z, Li P Y, Yu Y P, Zhu G M, Li Z K, Lei T, Yue W and McCulloch I 2022 Facilely accessible porous conjugated polymers toward high-performance and flexible organic electrochemical transistors Chem. Mater. 34 1666–76

Wu X H, Surendran A, Moser M, Chen S, Muhammad B T, Maria I P, McCulloch I and Leong W L 2020 Universal spray-deposition process for scalable, high-performance, and stable organic electrochemical transistors ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 12 20757–64

Kong L B, Peng X, Chen Y, Wang P and Xu M 2020 Multi-sensor measurement and data fusion technology for manufacturing process monitoring: a literature review Int. J. Extrem. Manuf. 2 022001

Shuai C J, Li D S, Yao X, Li X and Gao C D 2023 Additive manufacturing of promising heterostructure for biomedical applications Int. J. Extrem. Manuf. 5 032012

Wang J F, Suo J, Song Z X, Li W J and Wang Z B 2023 Nanomaterial-based flexible sensors for metaverse and virtual reality applications Int. J. Extrem. Manuf. 5 032013

Nissa J, Janson P, Simon D T and Berggren M 2021 Expanding the understanding of organic electrochemical transistor function Appl. Phys. Lett. 118 053301

Thiburce Q, Giovannitti A, McCulloch I and Campbell A J 2019 Nanoscale ion-doped polymer transistors Nano Lett. 19 1712–8

Rivnay J et al 2015 High-performance transistors for bioelectronics through tuning of channel thickness Sci. Adv. 1 e1400251

Yaghmazadeh O, Cicoira F, Bernards D A, Yang S Y, Bonnassieux Y and Malliaras G G 2011 Optimization of organic electrochemical transistors for sensor applications J. Polym. Sci. Polym. Phys. 49 34–39

Bernards D A, Macaya D J, Nikolou M, DeFranco J A, Takamatsu S and Malliaras G G 2008 Enzymatic sensing with organic electrochemical transistors J. Mater. Chem. 18 116–20

Spyropoulos G D, Gelinas J N and Khodagholy D 2019 Internal ion-gated organic electrochemical transistor: a building block for integrated bioelectronics Sci. Adv. 5 eaau7378

Inal S, Rivnay J, Leleux P, Ferro M, Ramuz M, Brendel J C, Schmidt M M, Thelakkat M and Malliaras G G 2014 A high transconductance accumulation mode electrochemical transistor Adv. Mater. 26 7450–5

Kukhta N A, Marks A and Luscombe C K 2022 Molecular design strategies toward improvement of charge injection and ionic conduction in organic mixed ionic–electronic conductors for organic electrochemical transistors Chem. Rev. 122 4325–55

Ji J L, Wang H W, Liu R, Jiang X N, Zhang Q, Peng Y B, Sang S B, Sun Q J and Wang Z L 2021 Dual-liquid-gated electrochemical transistor and its neuromorphic behaviors Nano Energy 87 106116

Ko J, Wu X H, Surendran A, Muhammad B T and Leong W L 2020 Self-healable organic electrochemical transistor with high transconductance, fast response, and long-term stability ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 12 33979–88

Wang S J et al 2023 An organic electrochemical transistor for multi-modal sensing, memory and processing Nat. Electron. 6 281–91

Moser M et al 2020 Side chain redistribution as a strategy to boost organic electrochemical transistor performance and stability Adv. Mater. 32 2002748

Hallani R K et al 2021 Regiochemistry-driven organic electrochemical transistor performance enhancement in ethylene glycol-functionalized polythiophenes J. Am. Chem. Soc. 143 11007–18

Wu H Y et al 2022 Influence of molecular weight on the organic electrochemical transistor performance of ladder-type conjugated polymers Adv. Mater. 34 2106235

Li P Y, Shi J W, Lei Y Q, Huang Z and Lei T 2022 Switching p-type to high-performance n-type organic electrochemical transistors via doped state engineering Nat. Commun. 13 5970

Yang C Y et al 2022 Low-power/high-gain flexible complementary circuits based on printed organic electrochemical transistors Adv. Electron. Mater. 8 2100907

Dai Y H et al 2022 Stretchable redox-active semiconducting polymers for high-performance organic electrochemical transistors Adv. Mater. 34 2201178

Massetti M et al 2023 Fully 3D-printed organic electrochemical transistors npj Flex. Electron. 7 11

Cea C, Spyropoulos G D, Jastrzebska-Perfect P, Ferrero J J, Gelinas J N and Khodagholy D 2020 Enhancement-mode ion-based transistor as a comprehensive interface and real-time processing unit for in vivo electrophysiology Nat. Mater. 19 679–86

Zabihipour M, Lassnig R, Strandberg J, Berggren M, Fabiano S, Engquist I and Ersman P A 2020 High yield manufacturing of fully screen-printed organic electrochemical transistors npj Flex. Electron. 4 15

Chen J H et al 2022 Highly stretchable organic electrochemical transistors with strain-resistant performance Nat. Mater. 21 564–71

Khodagholy D et al 2013 In vivo recordings of brain activity using organic transistors Nat. Commun. 4 1575

Nawaz A, Liu Q, Leong W L, Fairfull-Smith K E and Sonar P 2021 Organic electrochemical transistors for in vivo bioelectronics Adv. Mater. 33 2101874

Bidinger S L, Keene S T, Han S, Plaxco K W, Malliaras G G and Hasan T 2022 Pulsed transistor operation enables miniaturization of electrochemical aptamer-based sensors Sci. Adv. 8 eadd4111

Tan S T M, Lee G, Denti I, LeCroy G, Rozylowicz K, Marks A, Griggs S, McCulloch I, Giovannitti A and Salleo A 2022 Tuning organic electrochemical transistor threshold voltage using chemically doped polymer gates Adv. Mater. 34 2202359

Xi X, Wu D Q, Ji W, Zhang S N, Tang W, Su Y Z, Guo X J and Liu R L 2020 Manipulating the sensitivity and selectivity of OECT-based biosensors via the surface engineering of carbon cloth gate electrodes Adv. Funct. Mater. 30 1905361

Xie K et al 2020 Organic electrochemical transistor arrays for real-time mapping of evoked neurotransmitter release in vivo eLife 9 e50345

Rashid R B, Du W Y, Griggs S, Maria I P, McCulloch I and Rivnay J 2021 Ambipolar inverters based on cofacial vertical organic electrochemical transistor pairs for biosignal amplification Sci. Adv. 7 eabh1055

Donahue M J, Williamson A, Strakosas X, Friedlein J T, McLeod R R, Gleskova H and Malliaras G G 2018 High-performance vertical organic electrochemical transistors Adv. Mater. 30 1705031

Lenz J, Del Giudice F, Geisenhof F R, Winterer F and Weitz R T 2019 Vertical, electrolyte-gated organic transistors show continuous operation in the MA cm⁻² regime and artificial synaptic behaviour Nat. Nanotechnol. 14 579–85

Yan Y J, Chen Q Z, Wu X M, Wang X M, Li E L, Ke Y D, Liu Y, Chen H P and Guo T L 2020 High-performance organic electrochemical transistors with nanoscale channel length and their application to artificial synapse ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 12 49915–25

Chen Y P, Meng J, Xu Y M, Li Y G, Zhang Q H, Hou C Y, Sun H D, Wang G and Wang H Z 2021 Integrated ionic-additive assisted wet-spinning of highly conductive and stretchable PEDOT:PSS fiber for fibrous organic electrochemical transistors Adv. Electron. Mater. 7 2100231

Ferro L M M, Merces L, De Camargo D, S H and Bufon C C B 2021 Ultrahigh-gain organic electrochemical transistor chemosensors based on self-curled nanomembranes Adv. Mater. 33 2101518

Jo Y J, Kim S Y, Hyun J H, Park B, Choy S, Koirala G R and Kim T I 2022 Fibrillary gelation and dedoping of PEDOT:PSS fibers for interdigitated organic electrochemical transistors and circuits npj Flex. Electron. 6 31

Yeung S Y, Veronica A, Li Y and Hsing I 2019 High-performance internal ion-gated organic electrochemical transistors for high-frequency bioimpedance analysis Adv. Mater. Technol. 8 2201116

Cea C, Zhao Z, Wisniewski D, Spyropoulos G D, Polyravas A, Gelinas J N and Khodagholy D 2023 Integrated internal ion-gated organic electrochemical transistors for stand-alone conformable bioelectronics Nat. Mater. 22 1227–35

Mariani F, Gualandi I, Tessarolo M, Fraboni B and Scavetta E 2018 PEDOT: dye-based, flexible organic electrochemical transistor for highly sensitive pH monitoring ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 10 22474–84

Lin B J et al 2022 Flexible organic integrated electronics for self-powered multiplexed ocular monitoring npj Flex. Electron. 6 77

Gualandi I, Tonelli D, Mariani F, Scavetta E, Marzocchi M and Fraboni B 2020 Selective detection of dopamine with an all PEDOT:PSS organic electrochemical transistor Sci. Rep. 6 35419

Koutsouras D, Torricelli F, Gkoupidenis P and Blom P 2021 Efficient gating of organic electrochemical transistors with in-plane gate electrodes Adv. Mater. Technol. 6 2100732

Chen X D, Rogers J A, Lacour S P, Hu W P and Kim D H 2019 Materials chemistry in flexible electronics Chem. Soc. Rev. 48 1431–3

Gao W, Ota H, Kiriya D, Takei K and Javey A 2019 Flexible electronics toward wearable sensing Acc. Chem. Res. 52 523–33

Kalra A, Lowe A and Al-Jumaily A M 2016 Mechanical behaviour of skin: a review J. Mater. Sci. Eng. 5 1000254

Chen H Y, Wei T R, Zhao K P, Qiu P F, Chen L D, He J and Shi X 2021 Room-temperature plastic inorganic semiconductors for flexible and deformable electronics InfoMat 3 22–35

Fan X, Nie W Y, Tsai H, Wang N X, Huang H H, Cheng Y J, Wen R J, Ma L J, Yan F and Xia Y G 2019 PEDOT:PSS for flexible and stretchable electronics: modifications, strategies, and applications Adv. Sci. 6 1900813

Wang W J et al 2022 High-transconductance, highly elastic, durable and recyclable all-polymer electrochemical transistors with 3D micro-engineered interfaces Nano-Micro Lett. 14 184

Zhang S M, Hubis E, Tomasello G, Soliveri G, Kumar P and Cicoira F 2017 Patterning of stretchable organic electrochemical transistors Chem. Mater. 29 3126–32

Zhang S M, Li Y, Tomasello G, Anthonisen M, Li X D, Mazzeo M, Genco A, Grutter P and Cicoira F 2019 Tuning the electromechanical properties of PEDOT:PSS films for stretchable transistors and pressure sensors Adv. Electron. Mater. 5 1900191

Flagg L Q, Bischak C G, Onorato J W, Rashid R B, Luscombe C K and Ginger D S 2019 Polymer crystallinity controls water uptake in glycol side-chain polymer organic electrochemical transistors J. Am. Chem. Soc. 141 4345–54

Schmode P, Savva A, Kahl R, Ohayon D, Meichsner F, Dolynchuk O, Thurn-Albrecht T, Inal S and Thelakkat M 2020 The key role of side chain linkage in structure formation and mixed conduction of ethylene glycol substituted polythiophenes ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 12 13029–39

Chen X X, Marks A, Paulsen B D, Wu R H, Rashid R B, Chen H, Alsufyani M, Rivnay J and McCulloch I 2021 n-type rigid semiconducting polymers bearing oligo(ethylene glycol) side chains for high-performance organic electrochemical transistors Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. 60 9368–73

Wang Y and Liu Y Q 2023 Insight into conjugated polymers for organic electrochemical transistors Trends Chem. 5 279–94

Lu K K, Li X M, Sun Q Q, Pang X C, Chen J Z, Minari T, Liu X Y and Song Y L 2021 Solution-processed electronics for artificial synapses Mater. Horiz. 8 447–70

Zhu M, Li P Y, Li J L and Lei T 2022 Molecular packing and film morphology control in organic electrochemical transistors Mol. Syst. Des. Eng. 7 6–20

Nightingale J, Pitsalidis C, Pappa A M, Tan E, Stewart K, Owens R M and Kim J S 2020 Small molecule additive for low-power accumulation mode organic electrochemical transistors J. Mater. Chem. C 8 8846–55

Savva A et al 2019 Solvent engineering for high-performance n-type organic electrochemical transistors Adv. Electron. Mater. 5 1900249

Kim N, Kee S, Lee S H, Lee B H, Kahng Y H, Jo Y R, Kim B J and Lee K 2014 Highly conductive PEDOT: PSS nanofibrils induced by solution-processed crystallization Adv. Mater. 26 2268–72

Rivnay J, Inal S, Collins B A, Sessolo M, Stavrinidou E, Strakosas X, Tassone C, Delongchamp D M and Malliaras G G 2016 Structural control of mixed ionic and electronic transport in conducting polymers Nat. Commun. 7 11287

Giovannitti A, Sbircea D T, Inal S, Nielsen C B, Bandiello E, Hanifi D A, Sessolo M, Malliaras G G, McCulloch I and Rivnay J 2016 Controlling the mode of operation of organic transistors through side-chain engineering Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 113 12017–22

Wang J B, Lee S, Yokota T and Someya T 2022 Gas-permeable organic electrochemical transistor embedded with a porous solid-state polymer electrolyte as an on-skin active electrode for electrophysiological signal acquisition Adv. Funct. Mater. 32 2200458

Rajapaksha C P H, Paudel P R, Kodikara P M S G, Dahal D, Dassanayake T M, Kaphle V, Lüssem B and Jákli A 2022 Ionic liquid crystal elastomers-based flexible organic electrochemical transistors: effect of director alignment of the solid electrolyte Appl. Phys. Rev. 9 011415

Choi J H, Xie W, Gu Y Y, Frisbie C D and Lodge T P 2015 Single ion conducting, polymerized ionic liquid triblock copolymer films: high capacitance electrolyte gates for n-type transistors ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 7 7294–302

Rich S I, Jiang Z, Fukuda K and Someya T 2021 Well-rounded devices: the fabrication of electronics on curved surfaces-a review Mater. Horiz. 8 1926–58

Kang J, Lim Y W, Lee I, Kim S, Kim K Y, Lee W and Bae B S 2022 Photopatternable poly(dimethylsiloxane) (PDMS) for an intrinsically stretchable organic electrochemical transistor ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 14 24840–9

Liu D Y, Tian X Y, Bai J, Wang Y, Cheng Y X, Ning W J, Chan P K L, Wu K, Sun J Q and Zhang S M 2022 Intrinsically stretchable organic electrochemical transistors with rigid-device-benchmarkable performance Adv. Sci. 9 2203418

Wang Y D, Zhou Z, Qing X, Zhong W B, Liu Q Z, Wang W W, Li M F, Liu K and Wang D 2016 Ion sensors based on novel fiber organic electrochemical transistors for lead ion detection Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 408 5779–87

Gualandi I, Marzocchi M, Achilli A, Cavedale D, Bonfiglio A and Fraboni B 2016 Textile organic electrochemical transistors as a platform for wearable biosensors Sci. Rep. 6 33637

Lee W et al 2018 Nonthrombogenic, stretchable, active multielectrode array for electroanatomical mapping Sci. Adv. 4 eaau2426

Marchiori B, Delattre R, Hannah S, Blayac S and Ramuz M 2018 Laser-patterned metallic interconnections for all stretchable organic electrochemical transistors Sci. Rep. 8 8477

Matsuhisa N et al 2019 High-transconductance stretchable transistors achieved by controlled gold microcrack morphology Adv. Electron. Mater. 5 1900347

Lerond M, Subramanian A, Skene W G and Cicoira F 2021 Combining electrospinning and electrode printing for the fabrication of stretchable organic electrochemical transistors Front. Phys. 9 708914

Li Y, Zhang S M, Li X D, Unnava V R N and Cicoira F 2019 Highly stretchable PEDOT:PSS organic electrochemical transistors achieved via polyethylene glycol addition Flex. Print. Electron. 4 044004

Cunin C and Gumyusenge A 2023 Vertical architecture improves performance of transistor family Nature 613 444–5

Thiburce Q, Melosh N and Salleo A 2022 Wafer-scale microfabrication of flexible organic electrochemical transistors Flex. Print. Electron. 7 034001

Chen S, Surendran A, Wu X H, Lee S Y, Stephen M and Leong W L 2020 Recent technological advances in fabrication and application of organic electrochemical transistors Adv. Mater. Technol. 5 2000523

Liu H, Yang A N, Song J J, Wang N X, Lam P, Li Y, Law H K W and Yan F 2021 Ultrafast, sensitive, and portable detection of COVID-19 IgG using flexible organic electrochemical transistors Sci. Adv. 7 eabg8387

Fuller E J et al 2019 Parallel programming of an ionic floating-gate memory array for scalable neuromorphic computing Science 364 570–4

Zhong Y Z, Koklu A, Villalva D R, Zhang Y C, Hernandez L H, Moser M, Hallani R K, McCulloch I, Baran D and Inal S 2023 An organic electrochemical transistor integrated photodetector for high quality photoplethysmogram signal acquisition Adv. Funct. Mater. 33 2211479

Jimbo Y et al 2021 An organic transistor matrix for multipoint intracellular action potential recording Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 118 e2022300118

Zschieschang U, Klauk H and Borchert J W 2023 High-resolution lithography for high-frequency organic thin-film transistors Adv. Mater. Technol. 8 2201888

Kwak I C, Lee Y, Kim M J, Choi Y J, Roe D G, Kang M S, Woo H Y and Cho J H 2023 Solid-state homojunction electrochemical transistors and logic gates on plastic Adv. Funct. Mater. 33 2211740

Lim D U, Jo S B and Cho J H 2023 Monolithic tandem vertical electrochemical transistors for printed multi-valued logic Adv. Mater. 35 2208757

Fumeaux N and Briand D 2023 Zinc hybrid sintering for printed transient sensors and wireless electronics npj Flex. Electron. 7 14

Zumeit A, Dahiya A S, Christou A, Shakthivel D and Dahiya R 2021 Direct roll transfer printed silicon nanoribbon arrays based high-performance flexible electronics npj Flex. Electron. 5 18

Schmatz B, Lang A W and Reynolds J R 2019 Fully printed organic electrochemical transistors from green solvents Adv. Funct. Mater. 29 1905266

Ersman P A, Lassnig R, Strandberg J and Dyreklev P 2021 Flexible active matrix addressed displays manufactured by screen printing Adv. Electron. Mater. 23 2000771

Ersman P A et al 2020 Monolithic integration of display driver circuits and displays manufactured by screen printing Flex. Print. Electron. 5 024001

Granelli R, Alessandri I, Gkoupidenis P, Vassalini I, Kovács-Vajna Z M, Blom P W M and Torricelli F 2022 High-performance bioelectronic circuits integrated on biodegradable and compostable substrates with fully printed mask-less organic electrochemical transistors Small 18 2108077

Harikesh P C et al 2022 Organic electrochemical neurons and synapses with ion mediated spiking Nat. Commun. 13 901

AlChamaa W and Khraiche M 2022 High performance fully inkjet-printed organic electrochemical transistor (OECT) biosensor J. Electrochem. Soc. 169 087518

Li Y Z, Wang N X, Yang A N, Ling H F and Yan F 2019 Biomimicking stretchable organic electrochemical transistor Adv. Electron. Mater. 5 1900566

Mangoma T N, Yamamoto S, Malliaras G G and Daly R 2022 Hybrid 3D/inkjet-printed organic neuromorphic transistors Adv. Mater. Technol. 7 2000798

Fan J X, Montemagno C and Gupta M 2019 3D printed high transconductance organic electrochemical transistors on flexible substrates Org. Electron. 73 122–9

Zhang S M et al 2020 Hydrogel-enabled transfer-printing of conducting polymer films for soft organic bioelectronics Adv. Funct. Mater. 30 1906016

Zhou X Z, Zhang L W, Wang Y, Zhao S, Zhou Y, Guo Y R, Wang Y M, Liang J and Chen H W 2023 Aerosol jet printing of multi-dimensional OECT force sensor with high sensitivity and large measuring range Adv. Mater. Technol. 8 2201272

Makhinia A, Hübscher K, Beni V and Ersman P A 2022 High performance organic electrochemical transistors and logic circuits manufactured via a combination of screen and aerosol jet printing techniques Adv. Mater. Technol. 7 2200153

Braendlein M, Pappa A M, Ferro M, Lopresti A, Acquaviva C, Mamessier E, Malliaras G G and Owens R M 2017 Lactate detection in tumor cell cultures using organic transistor circuits Adv. Mater. 29 1605744

Chen S, Surendran A, Wu X H and Leong W L 2020 Contact modulated ionic transfer doping in all-solid-state organic electrochemical transistor for ultra-high sensitive tactile perception at low operating voltage Adv. Funct. Mater. 30 2006186

Song J J et al 2023 Perovskite solar cell-gated organic electrochemical transistors for flexible photodetectors with ultrahigh sensitivity and fast response Adv. Mater. 35 2207763

Wang X C, Meng X, Zhu Y Z, Ling H N, Chen Y H, Li Z K, Hartel M C, Dokmeci M R, Zhang S M and Khademhosseini A 2021 A sub-1-V, microwatt power-consumption iontronic pressure sensor based on organic electrochemical transistors IEEE Electron Device Lett. 42 46–49

Yan Y J, Wu X M, Chen Q Z, Liu Y Q, Chen H P and Guo T L 2019 High-performance low-voltage flexible photodetector arrays based on all-solid-state organic electrochemical transistors for photosensing and imaging ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 11 20214–24

Deng Y P et al 2022 A flexible and highly sensitive organic electrochemical transistor-based biosensor for continuous and wireless nitric oxide detection Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 119 e2208060119

Ghittorelli M, Lingstedt L, Romele P, Crăciun N I, Kovács-Vajna Z M, Blom P W M and Torricelli F 2018 High-sensitivity ion detection at low voltages with current-driven organic electrochemical transistors Nat. Commun. 9 1441

Pierre A, Doris S E, Lujan R and Street R A 2019 Monolithic integration of ion-selective organic electrochemical transistors with thin film transistors on flexible substrates Adv. Mater. Technol. 4 1800577

Liu C J, Wu M G, Gao L, Liu H and Yu J S 2022 Nanoporous polymer films based on breath figure method for stretchable chemiresistive NO₂ gas sensors Sens. Actuators B 371 132540

Guo K Y et al 2021 Rapid single-molecule detection of COVID-19 and MERS antigens via nanobody-functionalized organic electrochemical transistors Nat. Biomed. Eng. 5 666–77

Khodagholy D, Curto V F, Fraser K J, Gurfinkel M, Byrne R, Diamond D, Malliaras G G, Benito-Lopez F and Owens R M 2012 Organic electrochemical transistor incorporating an ionogel as a solid state electrolyte for lactate sensing J. Mater. Chem. 22 4440–3

Koklu A, Wustoni S, Musteata V E, Ohayon D, Moser M, McCulloch I, Nunes S P and Inal S 2021 Microfluidic integrated organic electrochemical transistor with a nanoporous membrane for amyloid-β detection ACS Nano 15 8130–41

Takemoto A et al 2023 Fully transparent, ultrathin flexible organic electrochemical transistors with additive integration for bioelectronic applications Adv. Sci. 10 2204746

Strand E J, Palizzi M J, Crichton C A, Renny M N, Bihar E, McLeod R R and Whiting G L 2023 Multimodal operation of printed electrochemical transistors for sensing in controlled environment agriculture Sens. Actuators B 387 133763

Van De Burgt Y, Lubberman E, Fuller E J, Keene S T, Faria G C, Agarwal S, Marinella M J, Talin A A and Salleo A 2017 A non-volatile organic electrochemical device as a low-voltage artificial synapse for neuromorphic computing Nat. Mater. 16 414–8

Wang X M, Yang H H, Li E L, Cao C B, Zheng W, Chen H P and Li W W 2023 Stretchable transistor-structured artificial synapses for neuromorphic electronics Small 19 2205395

Keene S T et al 2020 A biohybrid synapse with neurotransmitter-mediated plasticity Nat. Mater. 19 969–73

Qiu J, Cao J, Liu X S, Chen P, Feng G, Zhang X M, Wang M and Liu Q 2023 A flexible organic electrochemical synaptic transistor with dopamine-mediated plasticity IEEE Electron Device Lett. 44 176–9

Deng Y P et al 2023 A flexible and biomimetic olfactory synapse with gasotransmitter-mediated plasticity Adv. Funct. Mater. 33 2214139

Lee H R, Won Y and Oh J H 2022 Neuromorphic bioelectronics based on semiconducting polymers J. Polym. Sci. 60 348–76

Harikesh P C et al 2023 Ion-tunable antiambipolarity in mixed ion–electron conducting polymers enables biorealistic organic electrochemical neurons Nat. Mater. 22 242–8

Sarkar T, Lieberth K, Pavlou A, Frank T, Mailaender V, McCulloch I, Blom P W M, Torricelli F and Gkoupidenis P 2022 An organic artificial spiking neuron for in situ neuromorphic sensing and biointerfacing Nat. Electron. 5 774–83

Yu J R, Gao G Y, Huang J R, Yang X X, Han J, Zhang H, Chen Y H, Zhao C L, Sun Q J and Wang Z L 2021 Contact-electrification-activated artificial afferents at femtojoule energy Nat. Commun. 12 1581

Kim Y et al 2018 A bioinspired flexible organic artificial afferent nerve Science 360 998–1003

Seo D G et al 2019 Versatile neuromorphic electronics by modulating synaptic decay of single organic synaptic transistor: from artificial neural networks to neuro-prosthetics Nano Energy 65 104035

Chen Y H et al 2019 Piezotronic graphene artificial sensory synapse Adv. Funct. Mater. 29 1900959

Surendran A, Chen S, Lew J H, Wu X H, Koh T M and Leong W L 2021 Self-powered organic electrochemical transistors with stable, light-intensity independent operation enabled by carbon-based perovskite solar cells Adv. Mater. Technol. 6 2100565

Wu M, Yao K, Li D, Huang X, Liu Y, Wang L, Song E, Yu J and Yu X 2021 Self-powered skin electronics for energy harvesting and healthcare monitoring Mater. Today Energy 21 100786

Krauhausen I et al 2021 Organic neuromorphic electronics for sensorimotor integration and learning in robotics Sci. Adv. 7 eabl5068

Lee Y et al 2018 Stretchable organic optoelectronic sensorimotor synapse Sci. Adv. 4 eaat7387

Lee Y et al 2023 A low-power stretchable neuromorphic nerve with proprioceptive feedback Nat. Biomed. Eng. 7 511–9

Liu G C et al 2022 Ultralow-power and multisensory artificial synapse based on electrolyte-gated vertical organic transistors Adv. Funct. Mater. 32 2200959

Wu C X, Kim T W, Choi H Y, Strukov D B and Yang J J 2017 Flexible three-dimensional artificial synapse networks with correlated learning and trainable memory capability Nat. Commun. 8 752

Shim H et al 2019 Stretchable elastic synaptic transistors for neurologically integrated soft engineering systems Sci. Adv. 5 eaax4961

Shim H et al 2022 Artificial neuromorphic cognitive skins based on distributed biaxially stretchable elastomeric synaptic transistors Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 119 e2204852119

Chouhdry H H, Lee D H, Bag A and Lee N E 2023 A flexible artificial chemosensory neuronal synapse based on chemoreceptive ionogel-gated electrochemical transistor Nat. Commun. 14 821

Wang W C et al 2023 Neuromorphic sensorimotor loop embodied by monolithically integrated, low-voltage, soft e-skin Science 380 735–42

Tang K, Miao W J and Guo S 2021 Crosslinked PEDOT:PSS organic electrochemical transistors on interdigitated electrodes with improved stability ACS Appl. Polym. Mater. 3 1436–44

Giovannitti A et al 2016 N-type organic electrochemical transistors with stability in water Nat. Commun. 7 13066

Kim S M et al 2018 Influence of PEDOT:PSS crystallinity and composition on electrochemical transistor performance and long-term stability Nat. Commun. 9 3858

Kim J H, Ahmad Z, Kim Y, Kim W, Ahn H, Lee J S and Yoon M H 2020 Decoupling critical parameters in large-range crystallinity-controlled polypyrrole-based high-performance organic electrochemical transistors Chem. Mater. 32 8606–18

Castillo T C H, Moser M, Cendra C, Nayak P D, Salleo A, McCulloch I and Inal S 2022 Simultaneous performance and stability improvement of a p-type organic electrochemical transistor through additives Chem. Mater. 34 6723–33

Paterson A F et al 2020 Water stable molecular n-doping produces organic electrochemical transistors with high transconductance and record stability Nat. Commun. 11 3004

Wu X H, Chen S, Moser M, Moudgil A, Griggs S, Marks A, Li T, McCulloch I and Leong W L 2023 High performing solid-state organic electrochemical transistors enabled by glycolated polythiophene and ion-gel electrolyte with a wide operation temperature range from −50 to 110 °C Adv. Funct. Mater. 33 2209354

Nguyen-Dang T, Harrison K, Lill A, Dixon A, Lewis E, Vollbrecht J, Hachisu T, Biswas S, Visell Y and Nguyen T Q 2021 Biomaterial-based solid-electrolyte organic electrochemical transistors for electronic and neuromorphic applications Adv. Electron. Mater. 7 2100519

Abarkan M et al 2022 Vertical organic electrochemical transistors and electronics for low amplitude micro-organ signals Adv. Sci. 9 2105211

Song J J, Liu H, Zhao Z Y, Lin P and Yan F 2023 Flexible organic transistors for biosensing: devices and applications Adv. Mater. 2300034

Park S et al 2018 Self-powered ultra-flexible electronics via nano-grating-patterned organic photovoltaics Nature 561 516–21